Thursday, October 31, 2019
Privatization in Public Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Privatization in Public Administration - Essay Example Developing countries have adopted the privatization for planning as a policy and system for national socio-economic development. Privatization involves strategies that would reduce the task of the state by assigning larger roles for the private sector. Despite all identified challenges and disadvantages, the privatization of public administration would bring forth more effectiveness in organizational management and service delivery. Although the change is a major threat to the job security of public employees, it is more likely to continue as the improved level of productivity has already been proved. In delivering the public service, privatization can make use of the advantages of competition and flexibility. These advantages also help in attaining greater effectiveness and increased response to the needs of customers. These objectives are very difficult to be achieved within the public sector either due to the incapability of the government or due to the slow procedures of the gove rnment machinery. When the government plans for the privatization of any stream of public administration, it has to enter into a â€Å"performance contract†with the commercialized enterprise to determine the post privatization relationship between government and the firm. The performance contract must; Specify the long-term objectives involve performance criteria between the government and the firm specify the level of performance of the enterprise specify the certain penalties if the enterprise fails to fulfill any agreed performance. As Cook and Uchida point out, in many developing countries as well as in the developed countries privatization and commercialization have gained recognition and adequacy (1-23). It also helps the government in putting the government structure on track and strengthening industries controlled or administered by the state. Considering all the aspects of privatization, some support the view that ‘privatization is always political’, by political they mean governments have aims which are non-economic. To illustrate, privatization leads to the transfer of assets into the undesired private hands with the complete knowledge of the government, aiming at only special classes of buyers. On the way to privatization, there would be some political impediments too, such as conventional or disruptive attitude of existing managers and employees of state-owned enterprise who are afraid of the challenges of privatization. A well formulated privatization policy with strong determination can overcome such impediments. On the way to privatization there are many political and economic goals to be achieved and there are some political impediments to overcome. According to Donaldson; -It is the level of government’s strength and commitment that determines the precision in launching privatization. -It is the business needs that describe what sort of buyer should be invited. -Mass privatizations can be welcomed, but they may not help in adequate corporate governance. -A pro-competitive structure is an essential element of privatization which must be obtained. (Source: Donaldson, 19-37). One among the several advantages of privatization is that privatization brings more revenue to the government when compared to the public enterprises; so government can easily earn a little more by leasing out an enterprise to private undertakings. As the private organizations are very much concerned about the quality of service they provide, there will be increased levels of accuracy and commitment towards the job. Besides, the privatization of the public enterprise helps in getting out of the political interference. They have the expertise in proper
Tuesday, October 29, 2019
Post 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
Post 6 - Essay Example In case the land is not for sale, I would try doing this business myself. On the part of the agencies responsible for the protection of wildlife, this is like going so far in the attempt to safeguard the rights of the animals that the rights of humans start getting violated. So I would also like to call a press conference emphasizing that the agencies protecting animals’ rights need to review their practices as they have started to protect animals’ interests on the cost of humans’! It is time that the fundamental superiority of humans over animals is acknowledged and this principle be referred to in cases of mutual interest between humans and animals. My first classmate has made a wonderful reply to the question by bringing into light the potential negative ways in which certain animals that humans tend to protect affect humans. I am impressed with the detailed discussion of the real-life examples of bats and minnow that my classmate has cited. I totally agree that the wildlife protecting agencies should consider the extent to which saving certain species on the cost of humans’ interests is beneficial for the environment. I also agree that any individual in possession of such a piece of land should be compensated by the government. My second classmate has offered a number of amicable solutions that may be considered to have the land owner compensated without causing any harm to the endangered green-toed guttersnipe lizard. Sure enough, the first and the foremost reaction of every person would be extreme anger and irritation. It would be the first priority of any sensible person to get rid of such property. It’s quite sensible as well to consider offering the land to the government for tax exemption if the sale is not possible. I am particularly impressed with my classmate’s idea of bringing a premade house into
Sunday, October 27, 2019
Effect of hydration on blood pressure
Effect of hydration on blood pressure Introduction      Water is the key to all life; without it, life as we know it would not exist. So it is natural to believe that hydration should have an effect on blood pressure and heart rate, considering our heart is also one of the keys to our life as humans. So we will be testing what affect hydration has on blood pressure and heart rate, if any. Blood pressure is the pressure of the blood within our arteries. The measurement is recorded as the systolic pressure (pressure when heart contracts) over the diastolic pressure (pressure when the heart is relaxed). (Weedman, Sokoloski 2009)      A study was done at Franz-Volhard Clinical research center that examined how water drinking affected blood pressure in the body. The results showed that drinking 500mL of water increased patients blood pressure and also increased heart rate (Schroeder 2002). Although it was only a slight increase, it still had an affect on the pressure and heart rate.      Jens Jordan also did a study on how water affects blood pressure and found that the older the patient was the more of an effect drinking water had on blood pressure. In fact, in some of the younger patients drinking water had no effect at all. However, when the water did have an effect it increased blood pressure every single time. Some of the reasons for this increase, Jordan describes, are because water and plasma have different osmolarities (concentration of solute vs. solution), the pressure in the blood increases. Also, water may cause different plasma concentrations in the blood which would also cause an increase in blood pressure (Jordan 2002).      Rats and humans are very alike organisms. Our bodies both function and are made similarly. So when David Belanger and Samuel M. Feldman did a study on the effects of water deprivation on rats, we can predict that something similar may happen in humans. The rats heart rates decreased the longer they were dehydrated (Belanger and Feldman 1962). The study did not test what hydrating the rats would do, but since the heart rates decreased without water, it is possible that they would increase with water.      One reasonable explanation of why dehydration affects blood pressure is due to the tightening of blood vessels. The volume of blood in the blood vessels and veins of the body will begin to lessen when water is drawn from them. As a result, the vessels and veins will contract in order to stay full of blood (otherwise there is extra space, leaving room for gas to build up). This contracting results in high tension, or high blood pressure (Healthy-water-best-filters).      I hypothesize that hydration will affect blood pressure and heart rate. I predict that the blood pressure and heart rate will increase. The significance of this experiment is determining how hydration affects blood pressure and heart rate. It is important to know this because high blood pressure is a dangerous condition, and many people suffer from it. If hydration can affect blood pressure (and heart rate) in a good way, it may produce many ways to help keep blood pressure and heart rate at a healthy state. Materials and Methods      First, the variable to be tested (hydration) was decided by the class and a question to test was determined. The dependent variable was blood pressure and heart rate (beats per min). The independent variable was hydration (and time). Basal readings (resting blood pressure and heart rate) for each student were used from the last experiment. Each student did not drink any water over the duration of the class (about 2.5 hours), and at the end of class, each student drank roughly 16oz of water. Each person recorded their blood pressure and heart rate at time zero by using their basal BP and HR from the past experiments. Immediately after drinking the water, a partner began timing the other partner. Every three minutes each partner measured their partners blood pressure (systolic/diastolic pressure) and heart rate (beats per min) using a digital sphygmomanometer (which expressed both heart rate and blood pressure). A measurement was taken every three minutes for 12 min utes. There were 13 groups who gathered data, so 26 total students data was obtained and put into excel. Averages, T-Tests, and ranges were then attained and analyzed. (Weedman, Sokoloski 2009) Results      After all 26 students in the class drank about 16oz of water, each found a partner and started to record the blood pressure and heart rate of each other every 3 minutes for 12 minutes. The data for each student was obtained and analyzed in an excel spreadsheet.      The basal readings (resting rate) for blood pressure (systolic/diastolic pressure) for all 26 students ranged from 83/57 to 158/105. After every student took three basal readings, the averages for each basal reading were taken, and all three averages were averaged at 108/69. The blood pressures at time zero ranged from 91/58 to 175/134. After the outliers were removed, the average for time zero was 117/74. At 3 minutes, the blood pressures ranged from 86/63 to 157/117 and the average was 111/69 after outliers were removed. At 6 minutes, the blood pressures ranged from 85/52 to 150/75 and the average was 109/70 after outliers were removed. At 9 minutes, the blood pressures ranged from 91/53 to 140/80 and the average was 116/75 after outliers were removed. At 12 minutes, the blood pressures ranged from 91/59 to 137/69 and the average was 113/70 after outliers were removed. After performing a T-Test, we can determine that the data is significant (the result of the te st was 0.33). (Table 2)      Graph 2 illustrates how the systolic and diastolic pressures didnt change over time. After drinking 16oz of water, the blood pressure was not affected at all. The slope of the trendline for average systolic pressure is -0.1. We can determine that this is extremely close to zero. Its not enough of a slope to say that the systolic pressure decreased at all. The slope of the trendline for average diastolic pressure is -0.07. Again, this is close enough to zero to determine that there was no change in diastolic pressure.      The heart rate basal readings for all 26 students ranged from 53 beats per minute (bpm) to 122 bpm. The overall average basal reading for heart rate was 76.57 bpm. At time zero, the heart rates ranged from 44 bpm to 116 bpm and the average was 69.5 bpm after outliers were removed. At 3 min, the heart rates ranged from 52 bpm to 106 bpm and the average was 67.25 bpm once outliers were removed. At 6 min, the heart rates ranged from 51 bpm to 108 bpm and the average was 66.3 bpm once the outliers were removed. At 9 min, the heart rates ranged from 55 bpm to 116 bpm and the average was 68.67 bpm once outliers were removed. At 12 min, the heart rates ranged from 42 bpm to 100 bpm and the average was 69.33 bpm once outliers were removed. (Table 1)      Graph 1 illustrates the changes in the heart rate over the 12 minutes. From 0 to 6 minutes, the heart rate decreases by 3.2 bpm, but from 6 to 12 minutes, the heart rate increases by 3.03 bpm. However, since the average basal reading was 76.57 bpm, we can see that after drinking water, the heart rate immediately decreased by 7.07 bpm, and didnt recover after the 12 minutes. Since we didnt measure recovery rate, we dont know how long it took the body to recover. Discussion      I hypothesized that hydration would affect blood pressure and heart rate. I predicted that hydration would cause the blood pressure and heart rate to increase. The data did not completely support my hypothesis and prediction. Hydration did not affect blood pressure, but it did affect heart rate.      Graph 2 illustrates that once students drank 16oz of water their blood pressure was not affected. The slopes of both of the trendlines for systolic and diastolic pressures were extremely close to zero, showing that the blood pressures did not change due to hydration. Although the pressures increased a bit from the basal readings, it still follows the trend of the graph, and would not affect the trendlines. So we determine that hydration did not affect blood pressure.      Graph 1 illustrates that heart rate was affected by hydration. From time zero to 6 minutes, the average heart rate decreased by 3.2 bpm. From 6 to 12 minutes, the heart rate increased by 3.03 bpm. These increases and decreases of the heart rate are very close to each other. If we measured heart rate longer, we would be able to determine if this was a pattern or not. With the amount of data we have, its hard to determine if this is a significant increase and decrease. However, from the average basal reading of 76.57 bpm (Table 1) to the reading at time zero, there was an average decrease of 7.07 bpm. Compared to the other decrease in the graph, this is a much larger one. So we can conclude that hydration does affect heart rate, but only for a brief period of time. It decreases heart rate immediately, but after about 6 minutes, the heart rate begins to increase again. We cant determine if the heart rate is recovering because we didnt measure until the rate completel y recovered. So we can only conclude from our data that hydration decreases heart rate for about 6 minutes, and then it begins to recover.      An alternative hypothesis for the effect of hydration on blood pressure and heart rate would be that it would not affect blood pressure, and it would affect heart rate. The results of the study conducted at Franz-Volhard Clinical research center do not match the results we got in our experiment. They discovered that hydration increased both blood pressure and heart rate (Schroeder 2002). Our study showed that hydration does not affect blood pressure, but it does increase heart rate (for a certain period of time). Jens Jordans study, however, supports our results. In some of the younger patients in his study, hydration had no effect on blood pressure. But in the older patients, blood pressure increased (Jordan 2002). Since the patients of our experiment are all young, our results match Jordans. The study done my David Belanger and Samuel M. Feldman was conducted with rats, not humans and was the effect that dehydration has on heart rate. Their results showed that t he longer the rats were dehydrated, the more the heart rates decreased (Belanger and Feldman 1962). I predicted that since the heart rates decreased without water, they would increase with water. Since the experiments and variables were a little different, its hard to compare the results of our experiment with theirs. But, my prediction that was based on their experiment was not supported by our data.      I have identified several weaknesses in our experimental setup. If the amount of time allowed to measure the blood pressure and heart rate were extended, we could have determined when the blood pressure and heart rate recovered, and that would have helped with the analysis of our data immensely-especially the heart rate. We may have been able to determine if the heart rate actually did decrease, or if it was just a pattern that the body and heart have naturally. So recovery time would have helped with the significance of our data, as well as the analysis. Also, our data might have been more accurate with a larger group of people. More people would have solidified our data as more accurate. Works Cited Belanger, David, and Samuel M. Felman. 1962. â€Å"Effects of water deprivation upon heart rate and instrumental activity in the rat.†Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 55. â€Å"Dehydration And Blood Pressure Are Linked. Treat HBP with Water!†Dehydration symptoms= Sickness. Chronic Dehydration,Treatment, Hydration. 31 Jan. 2010. . Jordan, Jens. 2002. â€Å"Acute effect of water on blood pressure.†Mini-Symposium: Review Article. Schroeder, Christoph, Victoria E. Bush, Lucy J. Norcliffe, Friedrick C. Luft, Jens Tank, Jens Jordan, and Roger Hainsworth. 2002. â€Å"Water Drinking Acutely Improves Orthostatic Tolerance In Healthy Subjects.†Clinical Investigation and Reports. Weedman, Donna, and Erica Smith Sokoloski. Biology of Organisms: A Laboratory Manual for LIFE103. Vol. 5E. Mason: Cengage Learning, 2009.
Friday, October 25, 2019
The Curse of Macbeth Essay -- Macbeth essays
The Curse of Macbeth     Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's more popular plays, and nearly everyone knows about the abundant blood and gore, the witches, Lady Macbeth's ambition, and the ghost of Banquo. However, not as many people know about the superstitions that surround this play. There's a long-standing belief that the play is jinxed, than any company that produces it is courting disaster, and that quoting from the play (or even saying the title) leads to serious bad luck.  There's no doubt that several superstitions are associated with Macbeth. Many actors refuse to say the name of the play but rather refer to it as "The Scottish Play" or even "The Plaid Play" (Gero).  Some go even further, referring to it as "The Unmentionable" or even "That Play" (Demcisak 8). Actors also look unkindly on anyone who says the name of the title character or quotes from the play while in the theater. The only way to "cure" the problem created is to perform a ritual. For instance, the offending actor may be required to turn around three times and spit over his left shoulder, or turn around three times and quote from A Midsummer Night's Dream (Faulkner).  What's the evidence for the curse or jinx? Bad luck certainly seems to follow productions of Macbeth.According to legend, during the play's first production, the boy who played Lady Macbeth died backstage (Rozakis 245). In 1849, three of New York's theaters were featuring Macbeth, and two of the lead actors had a serious rivalry going. Edwin Forrest (one of the Macbeths) reportedly encouraged some of his followers to disrupt the production at his rival's theater. In the resulting riot, thirty-one people were killed (Demcisak 7).  Demcisak reports more tra... ...lt;http://ws.bowiestate.edu/archives/1995/0075.html>. Gagen, Steven. "The Scottish Play." Online posting. 6 Feb. 1995.    SHAKSPER@ws.bowiestate.edu. 7 March 2001    <http://ws.bowiestate.edu/archives/1995/0075.html>. Gero, Edward. "Re: The Scottish Play." Online posting. 8 Feb. 1995.    SHAKSPER@ws.bowiestate.edu. 12 March 2001    <http://ws.bowiestate.edu/archives/1995/0088.html>. "Ivanov Goes to Moscow." ArtsZone. 2 March 2001.    <http://www.ovationtv.com/artszone/programs/ivanov/wild.html>. Rozakis, Laurie. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Shakespeare. New York: Alpha,    1999. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Literature: An Introduction to Fiction,    Poetry, and Drama. Ed. X.J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia. 7th ed. New    York: Longman, 1999. 1522-1634.    Â
Thursday, October 24, 2019
In the Devil’s Snare Book Report
Elliot, J. H. , Imperial Spain: 1469-1716. London: Penguin Books, 1963. 423pgs. In Imperial Spain, J. H. Elliot examines the history of early modern Spain from the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella and Ferdinand, to the reformation of the Spanish government by the first member of the Bourbon dynasty. According to the author, at the start of the 15th century, Spain was internally weak, hopelessly divided and isolated from the continent by the Pyrenees.Yet, by 1492, Spanish society experienced a tremendous transformation which allowed Isabella and Ferdinand to unify the country, secure the largest transoceanic empire the world has ever known, and for a few decades become the strongest nation in all of Europe. Unfortunately, Elliot asserts, whatever dynamism animated this miraculous ascendancy did not last very long and Spain became once again a second or third-rate nation.The personal rule of the Catholic Monarchs, Elliot argues, is what made Spain a dominant world power; when t he Habsburg dynasty ascended to the throne, their cosmopolitan imperialism led them to neglect the nation that Isabella and Ferdinand had begun to create and led to the decline of Spanish power at home and abroad. The book presents the information chronologically and topically. The first four chapters deal with the geographical, social and political changes that took place during the reign of Isabella and Ferdinand. Chapters five through ten analyze the Habsburg dynasty's role in the undermining of the Spanish Empire.The extensive bibliography includes a topical section and several bibliographical essays. Six maps and five tables round out the work. In Chapter One entitled â€Å"The Union of Crowns†Elliot contends that the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon on 19 October 1469 made the idea of Spain an established fact. Even though there were still large sections of present-day Spain outside of the monarchs' control, the union of Castile and Aragon create d a situation in which the total unification of the peninsula could not be far off.While the marriage did not technically consolidate Aragon and Castile into one political entity, the author continues, the close relationship between Isabella and Ferdinand assured that they would act in concert for the betterment of their peoples. It was in this context, Elliot goes on to say in Chapter Two titled â€Å"Reconquest and Conquest,†that the Catholic Monarchs undertook the first step towards empire: the ReconquistaC the final elimination of the Moorish kingdom of Granada.Once the Reconquista was accomplished, the author avers, the monarchs could turn their attention to other matters. These included the consolidation of monarchical power in Castile, the financing of the Columbus expedition, the establishment of the New World empire when the expedition proved successful, and the hammering out of a favorable understanding with the Catholic Church. In Chapter Three, â€Å"The Orderin g of Spain†Elliot continues by stating that Castile was to be the base for the Spanish empire.Not only was Castile the larger and more populous of the two kingdoms, its political situation allowed for a consolidation of monarchical power that was not possible in Aragon. The Cortes (parliaments) and medieval fueros (far reaching privileges) of the towns and other organizations of Castile were not as strong or as well established as in Aragon and could be more easily circumvented or ignored. With the reorganization of the Council of Castile in 1480, the author asserts, Isabella had gathered not only the executive but the judicial power of the kingdom into her hands.Once the Reconquista was finalized in 1492, Granada and its resources fell under the jurisdiction of Castile. In addition, Isabella and Castile, Elliot explains, solely financed the Columbus expedition and when the Grand Admiral proved successful, the new territories were administered by the Council of Castile. This meant that the fabulous wealth of the Indies was to further solidify the monarch's position in Castile. Aragon, the author states, was mostly left out of the affairs of empire and it turned its attention to its Mediterranean possessions.While it is true that Ferdinand interfered little with Isabella's handling of Castilian affairs, Elliot asserts in Chapter Four (â€Å"The Imperial Destiny†) that certain key issues were handled jointly by the monarchs. This was evident in the concessions that they were able to extract from the Vatican. Patronato Real, or the right of presentation to all ecclesiastical benefices in the Kingdom of Granada was granted to the sovereigns of Spain by Pope Innocent VIII while the Reconquista was still ongoing. Eventually, the author goes on to say, this right would be extended to all Spanish domains. This gave the rulers of Spain almost omplete control of the Catholic Church in their territories and in time, the clergy would become the most efficien t of bureaucrats and administrators of the Spanish empire. Chapter Five is entitled â€Å"The Government and the Economy of the Reign of Charles V†and in it Elliot argues that after Ferdinand's death in 1516, his successor Charles I of Spain, V of the Holy Roman Empire, inherited a thriving, pacified, quasi-united kingdom that had access to the incredible wealth of the Americas. The problem, the author suggests, was that Charles and his successors did not fully understand the complexity of the Spanish system they inherited.Instead of cultivating the emerging nationalism of the Spanish, the Habsburgs pursued an imperial policy that ultimately destroyed the empire. Charles' most grievous mistake, according to Elliot, was his absenteeism. Charles was king of Spain for nearly forty years, but he barely spent sixteen in the peninsula. Ferdinand and Isabella, the author postulates, had been personal monarchs always before their people. Charles' absences made this impossible; the p eople were unhappy with this situation and Charles never became truly Spanish.Chapter Six, â€Å"Race and Religion†describes how Charles' continent- wide affairs generated a sense of instability and neglect in Spain. These continental affairs, the author adds, demanded readjustments, fiscal, social and administrative within SpainC what were her obligations to other parts of the Empire? Charles I, Elliot says, was forever embroiled in some conflictC the struggle with France in the 1520s, the offensive and defensive operations against the Turks in the 1530s, 1540s and 1550s, and the impossible task of destroying heresy once the Counterreformation was launchedC that strained the Imperial purse.Spain was induced to contribute heavily, the author states, though bankruptcy never materialized during Charles' reign. Chapter Seven (â€Å"One Monarch, One Empire, and One Sword†) and Chapter Eight (â€Å"Splendour and Misery†) deal with the reign of Phillip II. Not being able to crush the Lutheran heresy, Charles abdicated in favor of his son Philip II in 1566. Philip, who inherited only Spain and the Netherlands, was able to remain in the peninsula, but the author argues, he chose to pursue a disastrous imperial policy like his father. Philip turned his attention away from building a strong Spanish nation and in his capacity as defender of theCatholic faith he insisted in conducting a series of ruinous campaigns against the infidels and the heretics, the Ottoman Turks and the English. By 1575, the author continues, the treasury was so empty that Philip was obliged to declare a moratorium on loan payments. Then, the costly Spanish Armada, probably Philip's most important contribution to Habsburg Spain, was permanently crippled in 1588. Elliot maintains that even though materially the defeat of the Armada was not so exorbitant that it could not be made up, the psychological impact was nevertheless great.It showed, the author argues, the collapse of S panish policy in northern Europe. In 1598, the year of Philip's death, Elliot asserts, the treasury was depleted and the nation was exhausted. The final two chapters (â€Å"Revival and Disaster†and â€Å"Epitaph on Empire†) discuss the three remaining Habsburg kings, Philip III (1598-1621), Philip IV (1621-1665), and Charles II (1665-1700) and how they were forced to face the reality of the defeat of Spain. According to Elliot, the last three Habsburg kings lacked the material resources, had no capable ministers, viceroys and other officials.This situation, the author speculates, was due in part to the â€Å"closed†nature of the Spanish social and educational systems of the 17th century both of which failed to produce innovative political leaders. Charles II failed to produce an heir and through international machinations, Philip Duke of Anjou was proclaimed King Philip V in April 1701. Once the War of Spanish Succession was concluded and the Bourbon right to the throne formalized by the Treaty of Utrecht, the new king quickly divested himself of the Netherlands, the Spanish Italian possessions, introduced the intendant system and in 1716 broke Aragon's independence.Spain was finally centralized and Castilianized, but according to Elliot, it came too late. Castilian economic and cultural hegemony were a thing of the past and its backwardness was thrust upon the more advanced peripheral areas. Elliot’s book explains Spanish political and military affairs between 1469 and 1716 in great detail. It is not necessary to be an expert on Spanish history to fully understand the inner workings of the Spanish monarchy as it truggled to centralize the nation and defend Catholicism during the Reformation after reading this book. This book is also useful for those who want to better understand the imperial government of the Spanish colonies. The information presented in this book provides a chronological basis for creating a historical fictiona l character between 1600 and 1640â€â€especially if the character is involved in politics. The book would not be suitable for those interested in the cultural, intellectual or social history of Spain during this period.
Wednesday, October 23, 2019
Juvenile delinquency: an integrated approach Essay
Rick: A â€Å"Delinquent Youth†The youth court adjudicated or judged Rick, a 14-year-old, a â€Å"delinquent youth,†for motor vehicle theft and placed him on formal probation for six months. He and a good friend took without permission a car that belonged to Rick’s father. They were pulled over by the police for driving erraticallyâ€â€a classic case of joyriding. Rick was already a familiar figure in the juvenile court. When Rick was 12, he was referred to the court for â€Å"deviant sex†for an incident in which he was caught engaging in sexual activity with a 14-year-old girl. The juvenile court dealt with this offense â€Å"informally.†A probation officer met with Rick and his parents to work out an agreement of informal probation that included â€Å"conditions†or rules, but no petition into court. Not long after this first offense, Rick was taken into custody by the police for curfew violation and, on a separate occasion, vandalismâ€â€he and his good friend had gotten drunk and knocked down numerous mailboxes along a rural road. In both of these instances, Rick was taken to the police station and released to his parents. Even though Rick’s first formal appearance in juvenile court was for the auto theft charge, he was already well-known to the police and probation departments. Rick was a very likable kid; he was pleasant and personable. He expressed a great deal of remorse for his delinquent acts and seemed to genuinely desire to change. He had a lot going for him; he was goal-directed, intelligent, and athletic. He interacted well with others, including his parents, teachers, and peers. His best friend, an American Indian boy who lived on a nearby reservation, was the same age as Rick and had many similar personal and social characteristics. Not surprisingly, the boy also had a very similar offense record. In fact, Rick and his friend were often â€Å"companions in crime,†committing many of their delinquent acts together. Rick was the adopted son of older parents who loved him greatly and saw much ability and potential in him. They were truly perplexed by the trouble he was in, and they struggled to understand why Rick engaged in delinquent acts and what needed to be done about it. Rick, too, seemed to really care about his parents. He spent a good deal of time with them and apparently enjoyed their company. Because Rick was adopted as an infant, these parents were the people he considered family. Rick attended school regularly and earned good grades. He was not disruptive in the classroom or elsewhere in the school. In fact, teachers reported that he was a very positive student both in and out of class and that he was academically motivated. He did his homework and handed in assignments on time. He was also actively involved in sportsâ€â€football, wrestling, and track and field. Rick’s six months of formal probation for auto theft turned into a twoyear period as he continued to get involved in delinquent acts. Through regular meetings and enforcement of probation conditions, his probation officer tried to work with Rick to break his pattern of delinquency. Such efforts were to no avail. Rick continued to offend, resulting in an almost routine series of court hearings that led to the extension of his probation supervision period. The Study of Juvenile Delinquency The continuing pattern of delinquency included a long list of property and status offenses: minor in possession of alcohol, numerous curfew violations, continued vandalism, minor theft (primarily shoplifting), and continued auto theft, usually involving joyrides in his father’s car. Rick’s â€Å"final†offense was criminal mischief, and it involved extensive destruction of property. Once again, Rick and his best friend â€Å"borrowed†his father’s car, got drunk, and drove to Edina, an affluent suburb of Minneapolis. For no apparent reason, they parked the car and began to walk along France Avenue, a major road with office buildings along each side. After walking a while, they started throwing small rocks toward buildings, seeing how close they could get. Their range increased quickly and the rocks soon reached their targets, breaking numerous windows. The â€Å"fun†turned into thousands of dollars worth of window breakage in a large number of office buildings. Because of the scale of damage, Rick faced the possibility of being placed in a state training school. As a potential â€Å"loss of liberty case,†Rick was provided with representation by an attorney. This time, the juvenile court’s adjudication process followed formal procedures, including involvement of a prosecutor and a defense attorney. In the preliminary hearing, Rick admitted to the petition (statement of charges against him), and the case was continued to a later date for disposition (sentencing). In the meantime, the judge ordered a predisposition report. The predisposition report is designed to individualize the court’s disposition to â€Å"fit the offender.†The investigation for the report uses multiple sources of information, including information from the arresting officer, parents, school personnel, coaches, employers, friends, relatives, and, most importantly, the offending youth. The predisposition report tries to describe and explain the pattern of delinquency and then offer recommendations for disposition based on the investigation. In Rick’s case, the predisposition report attempted to accurately describe and explain his persistent pattern of property and status offending, and it offered a recommendation for disposition. Finding no information to justify otherwise, the probation officer recommended that Rick be committed to the Department of Corrections for placement at the Red Wing State Training School. Depending on one’s viewpoint, the state training school represented either a last ditch effort for rehabilitation or a means of punishment through restricted freedom. Either way, Rick was viewed as a chronic juvenile offender, with little hope for reform. It was one of those formative experiences. I [coauthor Jim Burfeind] was fresh out of college and newly hired as a probation officer. I was meeting with two experienced attorneysâ€â€one the defense, the other the prosecutor. Almost in unison, it seemed, they turned to me and asked, â€Å"Why did Rick do this? Why did he develop such a persistent pattern of delinquency?†They wanted to make sense of Rick’s delinquency, and they wondered how the juvenile court could best respond to his case. I had become familiar with Rick only in the previous few weeks when his case was reassigned to me as part of my growing caseload as a new probation officer. Now, meeting with the attorneys to gather information for the predisposition | 3 4 | JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH report, I was being asked to explain Rick’s pattern of delinquent behavior to two legal experts who had far more experience in the juvenile justice system than I did. I was, after all, new to the job. How could I possibly know enough to offer an explanation? I also had the daunting responsibility of making a recommendation for disposition that the judge would most likely follow completely. Rick’s future was at stake, and my recommendation would determine the disposition of the juvenile court. As I attempted to respond to the attorneys sitting in front of me, my mind was flooded with questions. The answers to these questions became the basis for my predisposition reportâ€â€an attempt to explain Rick’s delinquent behavior and, based on this understanding, to recommend what should be done through court disposition. The questions with which I wrestled included the following: Is involvement in delinquency common among adolescentsâ€â€that is, are most youths delinquent? Maybe Rick was just an unfortunate kid who got caught. Are Rick’s offenses fairly typical of the types of offenses in which youths are involved? Will Rick â€Å"grow out†of delinquent behavior? Is Rick’s pattern of offending much the same as those of other delinquent youths? Do most delinquent youths begin with status offenses and then persist and escalate into serious, repetitive offending? (Status offenses are acts, such as truancy and running away, that are considered offenses when committed by juveniles but are not considered crimes if committed by adults.) Is there a rational component to Rick’s delinquency so that punishment by the juvenile court would deter further delinquency? Did the fact that Rick was adopted have anything to do with his involvement in delinquency? Might something about Rick’s genetic makeup and his biological family lend some insight into his behavior? What role did Rick’s use of alcohol play in his delinquency? Are there family factors that might relate to Rick’s involvement in delinquency? Were there aspects of Rick’s school experiences that might be related to his delinquency? What role did Rick’s friend play in his delinquent behavior? Did the youth court’s formal adjudication of Rick as a â€Å"delinquent youth†two years earlier label him and make him more likely to continue in delinquent behavior? Should the juvenile court retain jurisdiction for serious, repeat offenders like Rick? What should the juvenile court try to do with Rick: punish, deter, or rehabilitate him? Should the juvenile court hold Rick less responsible for his acts than an adult because he has not fully matured? The Study of Juvenile Delinquency | Perhaps this list of questions seems a little overwhelming to you now. We don’t present them here with the expectation that you will be able to answer them. Instead, we present them to prompt you to think about what causes juvenile delinquency and to give you an idea of the types of questions that drive the scientific study of delinquent behavior. Throughout this book, we address these types of questions as we define delinquency; consider the nature of delinquent offenses, offenders, and offending; and present a variety of theories to explain delinquent behavior. We return to Rick’s story and these questions in Chapter 14. After reading the next 12 chapters, you should have the tools necessary to think about and respond to these questions in a whole new light. ââ€" Understanding Juvenile Delinquency The questions that shape the scientific study of juvenile delinquency constitute attempts to define, describe, explain, and respond to delinquent behavior. Rather than being asked with regard to a particular case like Rick’s, the questions that inspire the study of juvenile delinquency are cast more broadly in order to understand delinquent behavior as it occurs among adolescents. An understanding of delinquent behavior builds upon explanations that have been offered in theories and findings that have been revealed in research. The primary purpose of this book is to cultivate an understanding of juvenile delinquency by integrating theory and research. Throughout the book, we focus on the central roles that theory and research play in the study of delinquency, because these two components form the core of any scientific inquiry. Before we go any further, we must define what we mean by â€Å"juvenile delinquency.†This definition is far more complicated than you might think. In the next chapter, we offer a thorough discussion of the social construction and transformation of the concept of juvenile delinquency. Here we offer a brief working definition of juvenile delinquency as actions that violate the law, committed by a person who is under the legal age of majority. Our exploration of juvenile delinquency reflects the four basic tasks of the scientific study of delinquencyâ€â€to define, describe, explain, and respond to delinquent behavior. The first two major sections of this book are devoted to defining and describing juvenile delinquency, the third section to explaining delinquent behavior, and the final section to contemporary ways of responding to juvenile delinquency. Responses to delinquent behavior, however, should be based on a thorough understanding of delinquency. Thus, an understanding of juvenile delinquency must come first. The Study of Juvenile Delinquency The first section of this book describes the historical transformation of the concept of juvenile delinquency and the methods and data sources researchers use to study involvement in delinquent behavior. We begin by developing a working understanding of what we commonly call â€Å"juvenile delinquency†(Chapter 2). This includes not only the social, political, and economic changes that led to the social construction of juvenile delinquency as a legal term, but also the contemporary transformations that have dramatically altered how we as a society juvenile delinquency Actions that violate the law, committed by a person who is under the legal age of majority. 5 6 | JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH view, define, and respond to juvenile delinquency. We then explore how researchers â€Å"measure†delinquency (Chapter 3). We describe the research process, various methods of gathering data and doing research on juvenile delinquency, and sources of data on crime and delinquency. The Nature of Delinquency The second section of this book presents a trilogy of chapters in which we describe the nature of delinquent offenses, offenders, and patterns of offending. Any attempt to explain juvenile delinquency must first be able to accurately describe the problem in terms of these three dimensions. Chapters 4 through 6 report research findings that describe the extent of delinquent offenses (Chapter 4), the social characteristics of delinquent offenders (Chapter 5), and the developmental patterns of delinquent offending (Chapter 6). Explaining Delinquent Behavior The third section of this book examines a variety of explanations of delinquency that criminologists have proposed in theories and examined in research related to those theories. These chapters are organized in terms of the major themes that run through seven different groups of theories. One group of theories, for example, emphasizes the importance of peer group influences on delinquency. These theories, called social learning theories, address how delinquent behavior is learned in the context of peer group relations (Chapter 11). Six other themes are also considered: the question of whether delinquency is chosen or determined (Chapter 7); the role of individual factors, including biological characteristics and personality, in explaining delinquent behavior (Chapter 8); situational and routine dimensions of delinquency (Chapter 9); the importance of social relationships, especially family relations and school experiences, in controlling delinquency (Chapter 10); the structure of society, and how societal characteristics motivate individual behavior (Chapter 12); and social and societal responses to delinquency (Chapter 13). We also apply these various explanations to Rick’s case, which opened this chapter, and examine integrated theoretical approaches (Chapter 14). Throughout the book, as we present theoretical explanations for delinquency, we weave together theories and the most relevant research that criminologists have conducted to test those theories. Responding to Juvenile Delinquency The final section of this book comprises a single chapter that describes contemporary juvenile justice (Chapter 15). We have deliberately chosen to keep the discussion of juvenile justice in one chapter, in order to provide an undivided view of its structure and process. The formal system of juvenile justice includes police, courts, and corrections. Yet a substantial amount of juvenile delinquency is dealt with informally, sometimes by agencies outside the â€Å"system.†Juvenile justice encompasses efforts at prevention, together with informal and formal action taken by the traditional juvenile justice system. Formal procedures, such as taking youths into custody and adjudicating them as delinquent youths, are central to the task of responding to juvenile delinquency. But informal procedures designed to prevent delinquency and divert youths from the juvenile justice system are far more common. The Study of Juvenile Delinquency | ââ€" Developing and Evaluating Theories of Delinquency In 1967, two noted sociologists, Travis Hirschi and Hanan Selvin, observed that theories of delinquency suggest a â€Å"sequence of steps through which a person moves from law abiding behavior to . . . delinquency.†1 Criminological theories try to identify and describe the key causal factors that make up this â€Å"sequence of steps†leading to delinquent behavior. In doing so, theories of delinquency emphasize certain factors as being causally important and then describe how these factors are interrelated in producing delinquent behavior. Stated simply: â€Å"a theory is an explanation.†2 Components of Theories Like other scientific theories, theories of delinquency are composed of two basic parts: concepts and propositions. Concepts isolate and categorize features of the world that are thought to be causally important.3 Different theories of juvenile delinquency incorporate and emphasize different concepts. For example, the theories of delinquency we consider in later chapters include concepts such as personality traits, intelligence, routine activities of adolescents, relationship ties (called attachments), associations with delinquent friends, and social disorganization of neighborhoods. Concepts require definition.4 Definitions serve two functions: they clarify concepts and provide common understanding, and they describe how concepts will be measured for the purpose of research. Propositions tell how concepts are related. Scientific theories use propositions to make statements about the relationships between concepts.5 Some propositions imply a positive linear relationship in which the â€Å"concepts increase or decrease together in a relatively straight-line fashion.†6 For example, some theories offer the proposition that the number of delinquent friends is positively related to delinquent behavior: as the number of delinquent friends increases, so does the likelihood of delinquency. In a negative linear relationship, the concepts vary in opposite directions. For instance, one theory offers the proposition that level of attachment and delinquency are negatively related: as attachment increases, delinquent behavior decreases. Relationships between concepts may also be curvilinear. Here, too, the concepts vary together, either positively or negatively, but after reaching a certain level, the relationship moves in the opposite direction. For example, researchers have found that parental discipline is related to delinquency in a curvilinear fashion.7 Delinquent behavior is most frequent when parental discipline is either lacking or excessive, but it is least common when levels of discipline are moderate. If you think of parental discipline as a continuum, delinquency is highest on the two ends of the discipline continuum, when discipline is lax or excessive, and lowest in the middle, when discipline is moderate. Different theories may offer competing propositions. One theory may propose that two concepts are related in a particular way, whereas another theory may claim that they are unrelated. For example, one of the major issues in delinquency theory is the role of the family in explaining delinquent behavior. One major theory contends that the family is essentially unrelated to delinquent behavior and that delinquent peers are an important factor in explaining delinquency. Another theory An explanation that makes a systematic and logical argument regarding what is important and why. concepts Isolated features of the world that are thought to be causally important. propositions Theoretical statements that tell how concepts are related. 7 8 | theory of delinquency A set of logically related propositions that explain why and how selected concepts are related to delinquent behavior. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH influential theory proposes the opposite relationship, arguing that family relations are strongly related to delinquency, whereas peer relations are less important in explaining delinquency.8 To summarize, a theory of delinquency is a set of logically related propositions that explain why and how selected concepts are related to delinquent behavior.9 A theory offers a logically developed argument that certain concepts are important in causing delinquent behavior. The purpose of theory, then, is to explain juvenile delinquency. Levels of Explanation level of explanation The realm of explanation individual, microsocial, or macrosocialâ€â€that corresponds to the types of concepts incorporated into theories. Theories of delinquency operate at three different levels of explanation: individual, microsocial, and macrosocial.10 On the individual level, theories focus on traits and characteristics of individuals, either innate or learned, that make some people more likely than others to engage in delinquent behavior. The microsocial level of explanation considers the social processes by which individuals become the â€Å"kinds of people†who commit delinquent acts.11 Criminologists have emphasized family relations and delinquent peer group influences at this level. Some microsocial theories also point to the importance of the structural context of social interaction.12 Race, gender, and social class, for example, influence social interaction not only within families and peer groups, but in virtually all social contexts. As a result, the distinction between social process and social structure is not always clear, nor is it always useful as a means of categorizing theoretical explanations.13 At the macrosocial level, societal characteristics such as social class and social cohesiveness are used to explain group variation in rates of delinquency.14 For example, poverty, together with the absence of community social control, is central to several explanations of why gang delinquency is more common in lower-class areas.15 The level of explanationâ€â€individual, microsocial, or macrosocialâ€â€corresponds to the types of concepts incorporated into a theory.16 Individual-level explanations tend to incorporate biological and psychological concepts. Microsocial explanations most often use social psychological concepts, but may incorporate structural concepts that influence social interaction. Macrosocial explanations draw extensively on sociological concepts. Theories can be combined to form â€Å"integrated theories†(see Chapter 14), which sometimes merge different levels of explanation into a single theoretical framework. Assessing Theory We have proposed that concepts and propositions are the bare essentials of theory.17 These components, however, do not automatically produce a valid explanation of delinquency. We can begin to assess the validity of theoryâ€â€the degree to which it accurately and adequately explains delinquent behaviorâ€â€by paying attention to several key dimensions of theory.18 We highlight these dimensions (e.g., clarity, consistency, testability, applicability) in the following list of questions. We invite you to ask yourself these questions as you evaluate the theories of delinquency we present in later chapters and consider how well they explain delinquent behavior. 1. Conceptual clarity: How clearly are the theoretical concepts identified and defined?19 How well do the concepts and propositions fit togetherâ€â€how compatible, complementary, and congruent are they?20 The Study of Juvenile Delinquency 2. Logical consistency: Does the theoretical argument develop logically and consistently? Do the concepts and propositions depict a causal process leading to delinquency? 3. Parsimony: How concise is the theory in terms of its concepts and propositions? This question concerns economy of explanation. Generally, simpler is better. So if two theories explain delinquency equally well, we should favor the theory that offers the more concise explanation with the smaller number of concepts. 4. Scope: What is the theory attempting to explain?21 Some theories try to explain a wide variety of criminal acts and criminal offenders. Others focus on particular types of offenses or offenders. What question is the theory designed to answer? Theories of delinquency usually address one of two basic questions: (1) How and why are laws made and enforced? and (2) Why do some youths violate the law?22 Far more theories try to answer the second question than the first.23 5. Level of explanation: At what level (individual, microsocial, or macrosocial) does the theory attempt to explain delinquency? 6. Testability: To what extent can the theory be testedâ€â€verified or disproved by research evidence? It is not enough for a theory simply to â€Å"make sense†by identifying key concepts and then offering propositions that explain how these concepts are related to delinquency.24 Rather, theories must be constructed in such a way that they can be subjected to research verification.25 7. Research validity: To what extent has the theory been supported by research evidence? 8. Applicability and usefulness: To what extent can the theory be applied practically? In other words, to what extent is the theory useful in policy and practice? These questions reflect key concerns in assessing theory. In the end, theory is the foundation for the accumulation of knowledge, and it is indispensable for an understanding of juvenile delinquency. However, theory must be tested through research. Together, theory and research constitute the two basic components of a scientific approach to juvenile delinquency. ââ€" Purposes of Delinquency Research Delinquency research serves two vital purposes: to generate or develop theory, and to test theory.26 In Chapter 3, we discuss research methods and sources of data used in the study of delinquency. Here we briefly describe the two purposes of research as it relates to theory. Generating Theory Research is sometimes used to gain sufficient information about juvenile delinquency to theorize about it.27 Despite the old adage, â€Å"the data speak for themselves,†research findings about delinquency require interpretation, and it is this interpretation that yields theory. As a result, the development of theoretical | 9 10 | inductive theorizing The development of theory from research observations. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH explanations of delinquency requires a long, hard look at the â€Å"facts†of delinquency (repeated and consistent findings), in order to isolate and identify key concepts and then explain how these concepts are related to delinquent behavior. Along this line, Donald Shoemaker defines theory as â€Å"an attempt to make sense out of observations.†28 The difficult task of making theoretical sense of research observations is sometimes referred to as â€Å"grounded theory†or inductive theorizing. 29 In the process of inductive theorizing, research involves collecting data and making empirical observations, which are then used to develop theory. For example, Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck, whose work we discuss more fully in later chapters, spent their entire careers attempting to uncover the most important empirical findings about juvenile delinquency. They referred to their task as Unraveling Juvenile Delinquencyâ€â€the title of their most important book.30 The Gluecks’ work was heavily criticized for being atheoretical, or without theory.31 Their research, however, was clearly directed at providing empirical observations that would allow for the development of a theoretical explanation of delinquency, even though they never developed such a theory.32 In recent years, their data and findings have become the basis for an important new theory called â€Å"life-course theory,†which we describe in Chapter 10. Testing Theory deductive theorizing The evaluation of theoretical statements through research. Research also provides the means to evaluate theory and to choose among alternative theories.33 In contrast to inductive theorizing, deductive theorizing begins with theoretical statements and then attempts to test the validity of theoretical predictions.34 As we already discussed, theories advance explanations of delinquency in which propositions identify certain concepts and describe how they are related to delinquent behavior. These theoretically predicted relationships can be tested through research and either verified or disproved. For example, one simple proposition of differential association theory (presented in Chapter 11) is that attitudes favoring delinquency are learned in the context of â€Å"intimate personal groups.†35 The predicted relationship portrayed here is that youths develop attitudes from peer group relations, and delinquent behavior is then an expression of these attitudes: peer group relations âž delinquent attitudes âž delinquent behavior If research findings support the theoretical propositions tested, then the theory is verified or confirmed. If research findings are not consistent with the predicted relationships, then the theory is disproved. Different theories often offer different predictions. To continue with the previous example, differential association theory and social bond theory (presented in Chapter 10) provide competing predictions about the relationships between peers, attitudes, and delinquent behavior. In contrast to differential association theory, social bond theory contends that attitudes are largely a product of family relationships.36 Delinquent attitudes result in delinquent behavior. Associations with delinquent peers then follow from delinquent behavior as youths seek out friendships with others like themselves. The relationships predicted by social bond theory are as follows: The Study of Juvenile Delinquency delinquent attitudes âž delinquent behavior âž delinquent peer group As this brief example illustrates, theories have empirical implications, and one purpose of research is to enable scholars to choose among competing theories.37 The preceding discussion of the two purposes of delinquency research implies that the processes of inductive theorizing and deductive theorizing are completely distinct. The former is used to generate or develop theory; the latter is used to test theory. We must acknowledge, however, the complexity of the relationship between theory and research, and note that the distinction between the two purposes of research is not necessarily clear-cut. Even within the process of deductive theorizing, for example, an element of inductive theorizing exists. In deductive theorizing, researchers begin with theoretical predictions and then use empirical observations to test those propositions. The research results may lead to modification or refinement of the theory being tested. The latter part of this process, in which observations are interpreted and may result in a revised statement of theory, is consistent with the process of inductive theorizing. Although the relationship between theory and research is complex, it is clear that the development of theory and the performance of research go hand in hand.38 ââ€" Summary and Conclusions The scientific study of juvenile delinquency attempts to describe and explain delinquent behavior through theory and research. Theory seeks to provide a systematic and logical argument that specifies what is important in causing delinquency and why. Like other scientific theories, theories of delinquency are composed of concepts and propositions. It is necessary to assess the validity of theories, including those we apply to explain delinquency. We provided a series of questions that you can use to evaluate the theories of delinquency we present in later chapters. The second basic component of the scientific method is research. In relation to theory, research serves two purposes: to generate theory and to test theory. Research is sometimes used to gain sufficient information about juvenile delinquency so that it becomes possible to theorize about it. The development of theory from research observations is called inductive theorizing.39 Research is also used to evaluate or test theory in a process called deductive theorizing. As we noted earlier, the primary purpose of this book is to cultivate an understanding of juvenile delinquency by integrating theory and research. This chapter has offered an overview of the key elements of a scientific approach to juvenile delinquency, focusing especially on theory. We describe research methods in Chapter 3. With this basic understanding of theory and its relationship to research, we can begin our study of juvenile delinquency on solid ground. The first two sections of this book present criminologists’ efforts to define and describe juvenile delinquency, the third major section presents explanations of juvenile delinquency that have been offered in theory and tested in research, and the fourth section considers contemporary responses to delinquency. Throughout the book, we present theoretical explanations of delinquency together with the most relevant research that has tested those theories. | 11 12 CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Define theory without using the words â€Å"concept†or â€Å"proposition.†2. Why does a scientific approach to juvenile delinquency depend on theory? 3. Develop your own example of inductive theorizing. Develop your own example of deductive theorizing. 4. As you read Rick’s story at the beginning of this chapter, what factors seemed most significant to you in considering why Rick engaged in delinquency? Why? SUGGESTED READING Gibbons, Don C. Talking About Crime and Criminals: Problems and Issues in Theory Development in Criminology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. GLOSSARY concepts: Isolated features of the world that are thought to be causally important. deductive theorizing: The evaluation of theoretical statements through research. inductive theorizing: The development of theory from research observations. juvenile delinquency: Actions that violate the law, committed by a person who is under the legal age of majority. level of explanation: The realm of explanationâ€â€individual, microsocial, or macrosocialâ€â€that corresponds to the types of concepts incorporated into theories. propositions: Theoretical statements that tell how concepts are related. theory: An explanation that makes a systematic and logical argument regarding what is important and why. theory of delinquency: A set of logically related propositions that explain why and how selected concepts are related to delinquent behavior. REFERENCES Akers, Ronald L. Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application. 4th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury, 2004. Babbie, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. 8th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1998. Bohm, Robert M. A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2001. Cloward, Richard A., and Lloyd E. Ohlin. Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs. New York: Free Press, 1960. Cohen, Albert K. Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. New York: Free Press, 1955. â€â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€. Deviance and Control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1966. Cohen, Bernard P. Developing Sociological Knowledge: Theory and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980. 13 Curran, Daniel J., and Claire M. Renzetti. Theories of Crime. 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2001. Gibbons, Don C. The Criminological Enterprise: Theories and Perspective. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1979. â€â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€. Talking About Crime and Criminals: Problems and Issues in Theory Development in Criminology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. Gibbons, Don C., and Marvin D. Krohn. Delinquent Behavior. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991. Gibbs, Jack P. â€Å"The State of Criminological Theory.†Criminology 25 (1987):821–840. Glaser, Barney, and Anselm L. Straus. The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1967. Glueck, Sheldon, and Eleanor Glueck. Unraveling Delinquency. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1950. Hepburn, John R. â€Å"Testing Alternative Models of Delinquency Causation.†Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 67 (1976):450–460. Hirschi, Travis. Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1969. Hirschi, Travis, and Hanan C. Selvin. Delinquency Research: An Appraisal of Analytic Methods. New York: Free Press, 1967. Jensen, Gary F â€Å"Parents, Peers, and Delinquent Action: A Test of the Differential Association Per. spective.†American Sociological Review 78 (1972):562–575. Laub, John H., and Robert J. Sampson. â€Å"The Sutherland–Glueck Debate: On the Sociology of Criminological Knowledge.†American Journal of Sociology 96 (1991):1402–1440. Sampson, Robert J., and John H. Laub. Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. Shaw, Clifford R., and Henry D. McKay. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas: A Study of Rates of Delinquency in Relation to Differential Characteristics of Local Communities in American Cities. Rev. ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969. Shoemaker, Donald J. Theories of Delinquency: An Examination of Explanations of Delinquent Behavior. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Short, James F Jr. â€Å"The Level of Explanation Problem Revisited.†Criminology 36 (1998):3–36. ., Stark, Rodney. Sociology. 7th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1998. Stinchcombe, Arthur L. Constructing Social Theories. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1968. Sutherland, Edwin H., Donald R. Cressey, and David F Luckenbill. Principles of Criminology. 11th ed. . Dix Hills, NY: General Hall, 1992. Turner, Jonathan. The Structure of Sociological Theory. Rev. ed. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, 1978. Vold, George B., Thomas J. Bernard, and Jeffrey B. Snipes. Theoretical Criminology. 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. ENDNOTES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Hirschi and Selvin, Delinquency Research, 66. Bohm, Primer, 1. Turner, Structure of Sociological Theory, 2–3. Bohm, Primer, 2. See Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 140–148, for a full discussion of concept definition. Vold, Bernard, and Snipes, Theoretical Criminology, 4. Bohm, Primer, 2. Glueck and Glueck, Unraveling Delinquency. Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill, Principles of Criminology, 211–214; and Hirschi, Causes of Delinquency, 140–146. Stark, Sociology, 2; and Curran and Renzetti, Theories of Crime, 2. Short, â€Å"Level of Explanation.†Albert K. Cohen, Deviance and Control, 43; and Gibbons, Criminological Enterprise, 9. Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making; Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill, Principles of Criminology; and Short, â€Å"Level of Explanation.†Akers, Criminological Theories, 4–5. 14 14. Albert K. Cohen, Deviance and Control, 43; Gibbons, Criminological Enterprise, 9; and Akers, Criminological Theories, 4. 15. Shaw and McKay, Juvenile Delinquency; Albert K. Cohen, Delinquent Boys; and Cloward and Ohlin, Delinquency and Opportunity. 16. Short points out, in â€Å"The Level of Explanation Problem Revisited†(3), that the level of explanation corresponds to the unit of observation and the unit of analysis. 17. Our discussion of delinquency theory comprising concepts and propositions makes theory seem simple and straightforward. But we must admit that, among social scientists, â€Å"there is still no agreed-upon view of what theory is†(Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 170). See also Gibbs, â€Å"State of Criminological Theory.†18. Drawn from Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 191–192. 19. Shoemaker, Theories of Delinquency, 9. 20. Akers, Criminological Theories, 6–7; and Shoemaker, Theories of Delinquency, 9. 21. Akers, Criminological Theories, 6–7; and Curran and Renzetti, Theories of Crime, 3. 22. Akers, Criminological Theories, 2–6. Renowned criminologist Edwin Sutherland defined criminology as the study of law making, law breaking, and law enforcement (Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill, Principles of Criminology, 3). 23. Akers, Criminological Theories, 4. Gibbons (Talking About Crime, 9–11, 73–76) describes two key criminological questions: â€Å"Why do they do it?†and â€Å"the rates question.†The first question addresses â€Å"the origins and development of criminal acts and careers,†and the second question addresses â€Å"organizations, social systems, social structures, and cultures that produce different rates of behaviors of interest†(9). See also Gibbons, Criminological Enterprise, 9; Gibbons and Krohn, Delinquent Behavior, 85–86; and Short, â€Å"Level of Explanation,†7. 24. Akers, Criminological Theories, 7. 25. Stinchcombe, Constructing Social Theories. 26. Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, vii, 10; and Stark, Sociology, 3. 27. Stark, Sociology, 3. 28. Shoemaker, Theories of Delinquency, 7. 29. Glaser and Straus, Discovery of Grounded Theory; and Babbie, Practice of Social Research, 4, 60–64. 30. Glueck and Glueck, Unraveling Delinquency, 1950. 31. Gibbons and Krohn, Delinquent Behavior, 83–84. 32. Laub and Sampson, â€Å"Sutherland–Glueck Debate;†and Sampson and Laub, Crime in the Making. 33. Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 10. 34. Babbie, Practice of Social Research, 4. 35. Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill, Principles of Criminology, 88–89. 36. Jensen, â€Å"Parents;†Hepburn, â€Å"Testing Alternative Models;†and Hirschi, Causes of Delinquency. 37. Stark, Sociology, 2; and Bernard P. Cohen, Developing Sociological Knowledge, 10. 38. Gibbons, Talking About Crime, 7. 39. Stark, Sociology, 3.
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
Climate Change and Its Connections to Norms Lifestyle
Climate Change and Its Connections to Norms Lifestyle In May 2014, two new climate change studies were published, showing that the catastrophic collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet is underway, and has been for over two decades. The melting of this sheet is significant because it acts as a linchpin for other glaciers and ice sheets in Antarctica that will, in turn, melt over time. Ultimately, the melting of the south polar ice cap will raise sea levels globally by as much as ten to thirteen feet, adding on to the sixty-nine feet of sea level rise that scientists have already attributed to human activity. A 2014 report by The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warned that we are underprepared for extreme climate events, as has been demonstrated by deadly heat waves, droughts, floods, cyclones, and wildfires. Yet, there is a troubling gap between the serious reality depicted by climate change science and the level of concern among the U.S. public. An April 2014 Gallup Poll found that, while most U.S. adults view climate change as a problem, only 14 percent believe that the implications of climate change have reached a â€Å"crisis†level. A full third of the population believe that climate change is not a problem at all. Sociologist Riley Dunlap, who conducted the poll, also found that self-identified political liberals and moderates are far more concerned about the impacts of climate change than are conservatives. But, regardless of political inclinations, worry and action are two different things. Across the U.S., meaningful action in response to this harsh reality is scant. Research shows clearly that the level of carbon dioxide in the atmospherenow at an unprecedented 401.57 parts per millionis a direct result of the process of capitalist industrialization that has unfolded since the late 18th century. Climate change is a direct consequence of the widespread, now globalized, mass production and consumption of goods, and of the material construction of our habitat that has accompanied it. Yet, despite this reality, production and construction continue unabated. How Consumerism Shapes Our Impact on the Climate Its hard to accept that things need to change. As people who live in a society of consumers, who are steeped in consumerist way of life, we are socially, culturally, economically, and psychologically invested in this system. Our everyday life experiences, our relationships with friends and loved ones, our practices of leisure and amusement, and our personal goals and identities are all organized around practices of consumption. Many of us measure our self-worth by how much money we make, and by the quantity, quality, and newness of stuff we are able to buy. Most of us, even if we are critically aware of the implications of production, consumption, and waste, can’t help but want more. We are inundated with advertising so clever that it now follows us around the internet and pushes notifications of sales to our smartphones while we shop. We are socialized to consume, and so, when it comes down to it, we don’t really want to respond to climate change. According to the Gallup poll, most of us are willing to acknowledge that it is a problem that must be addressed, but it seems that we expect someone else to do that work. Sure, some of us have made lifestyle adjustments, but how many of us are involved in forms of collective action and activism that work productively toward social, political, and economic change? Most of us tell ourselves that achieving large-scale, long-term change is the work of the government or corporations, but not us. What Fighting Climate Change Really Means If we believed that a systemic response to climate change was an equally shared responsibility, was our responsibility, we would be responding to it. We would cast aside the mostly symbolic responses, given their marginal impact, of recycling, banning plastic shopping bags, swapping incandescent for halogen lightbulbs, purchasing â€Å"sustainable†and â€Å"green†consumer goods, and driving less. We would recognize that the solution to the dangers of global climate change cannot be found within the very system that has caused the problem. We would, instead, recognize that the system of capitalist production and consumption is the problem. We would renounce the values of this system, and foster new values oriented to sustainable living. Until we do that, we’re all climate change deniers. We may recognize that it exists, but most of us are not protesting in the streets. We might have made some modest adjustments to it, but we’re not giving up our consumer lifestyle. Most of us are in stark denial of our complicity in the changing climate. We are in denial of our responsibility to facilitate the necessary social, cultural, economic, and political changes that could begin to stem the tide of catastrophe. However, meaningful change is possible, but it will only happen if we make it so. To learn about how sociologists are addressing climate change, read this report from the American Sociological Associations Task Force on Climate Change.
Monday, October 21, 2019
A Heart of Fire essays
A Heart of Fire essays Slowly he walked down the hallways. His head ducked down, and his eyes slightly closed. His head was slightly turned towards the wall; he was trying to hide his tears. The slow movement of his tears felt like wet drips of sand, gently carving paths of heartbreak across his face. His heart felt as if it was on fire, and his mind was a jumble of thoughts. Why did kids have to be so mean to him? Was he really so different then them? Was he really the freak they accused him of being? A door jutted open in front of him, and turning quickly out of the way, he ran to the bathroom. He had to be alone. As he entered the bathroom he caught site of his reflection. Turning his face slightly toward the mirrors, he took a good long hard look at himself. He starred into his own deep dark brown eyes. His tears streamed down his chubby cheeks. His glasses seemed to fog from his misting eyes. "I hate VT," his words echoed around the old cement room. " I want to go home" John had moved to VT a few months earlier. He had hated the idea from the beginning. He was happy in NY. Why should he have to uproot from the only home he has ever known? " I grew up in that house," he thought. " Why can't my dad just keep working at the same place." A truth a, realization, something I found. When I was at the age of eight years old, I discovered a truth about mankind. We are cruel. Now to some, this seems like nothing short of common sense. But to a child, a child of a pure and gentle heart. This comes as a shock. I remember this day very clearly and the pain I felt. I remember the years after, and the torturous teasing, beatings, and stabbing that I endured. My case of Harassment wasn't just any normal sticks and stones. My peers horribly ridiculed me. And would you like to know the reasons why? " Oh Paul you are just one of those kids who always gets made fun of, its just who you are." I also made a realization. One of my stature could fight back. A ...
Saturday, October 19, 2019
Bridgeton Industries Essay Example for Free
Bridgeton Industries Essay 1. Describe the competitive environment for Bridgeton as well as the cost accounting system currently in use. When foreign competition and scarce, expensive gasoline began to play an important role in the market, Bridgeton began to lose domestic market share. The ACF Bridgeton plant faced new challenges in their production that led them to serious cutbacks like the closing of the ACF plant for manufacture of fuel-efficient diesel engines. By 1987, they classified their products in terms of â€Å"world class†competitive position and potential. With four criteria (quality, customer service, technical capability and competitive cost position) they classified their products in Class I (remain), II (observe) and III (outsource). The classification allowed Bridgeton to take decisions on how to better manage their products performance compared to their competitors. The cost accounting system was product costing, a mixed between job costing and process costing. 2. Explain why manifolds moved from Class II to Class III after oil pans and muffler-exhaust systems had been outsourced from the ACF. Despite improvements in the production process manifolds were downgraded from Class II to III. The results were not sufficient, even though they increased the uptime from an average of 30% to 65% they were behind their Japanese competitors that reached a â€Å"world class†goal of 80% uptime. In addition, as seen in Exhibit 2, the direct material costs for manifolds (based on stainless steel) is extremely high as a percentage of sales (around 40%) compared to the other products manufactured at ACF and at a better Class level. However, there was a doubt on this move due to the possibility of new market requirements for lighter weight (more efficient manifolds). This represented a good opportunity for ACF because as they manufactured manifolds with stainless steel, demand could increase and therefore selling price too. Bridgeton Industries. (2017, Feb 11).
Friday, October 18, 2019
Jim brown Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Jim brown - Essay Example Simons Island. Jim was excellent by all means as a school boy; he was unparalleled in football, baseball and track and field events. Perhaps it was the legacy of his father’s might as a profession al boxer. Apart from references of his excellence as an actor, this article covers specific features and traits of James as America’s all-time greatest professional athlete and the best known professional footballer ever. As a school boy, Jim’s focus was mainly on basketball and running with special enthusiasm for lacrosse. He had an outsmarting style of leading the rush that brought him the best name as a professional sportsman in the later stages of his career. He was always singled out as the best performer of each event he participated, and especially in basket ball and lacrosse, he was a dread in the minds of opponent teams for the fact that he could win the matches single handedly. Jim’s athletic skills were excellent as he always produced invincible energy to turn the matches to his side’s benefit without so many struggles as others usually had. Stamina and enthusiasm were the key factors he had learned to possess at a very young age. Jim’s records are evidences of his unchallenged dominance over the game zones during his years as a student at both the school and the university. James’ efforts were fruitful as he was committed to his games and practiced them with absolute dedication. A normal lad from a comparatively remote location of the racism-prone American generation would not grow this height if it was not for his determination and patience during hard work. James was a finding of his university indeed. His successful sessions in football had entered him the notice of Cleveland Browns and he was taken to the team to play professional football in 1956. He marked envious success at the feats and exited NFL as the record holder
Global & International Business Contexts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1
Global & International Business Contexts - Essay Example This is mainly because of drinking habits in non-traditional regions, growing culture of cafes and increasing share of instant coffee (Surana 2009). Discussing in detail the coffee market of India, the change in trend towards coffee is mainly due to two reasons, firstly, the entrance of multinational firms which bought the concept of instant coffee that is rising day by day. Secondly, the espresso culture which is encouraging coffee parlours to open up for consumers to choose variety of coffee from there, at the same time providing opportunity to meet people and relax (Sreenivasan 1999). These parlours are targeting the people between the age group of 15-29. This identify that the main target market for these coffee houses is youth which is the major population of India therefore the market is huge and the leader can gain a lot out of it. According to the research, 72% of customer or target market is students or young professional who have enough disposable income to spend on. Another target area for these coffee houses is the young people working in call centers due to which a lot of these cafes are located near call centers and big companies offices (Choudhury 2007). The coffee provided in a unique environment contributes 7% to the total consumption industry and is expected to grow at half percent (Shenoy 2005). Retail cafà ©s are now multi-crore industry and has a huge potential of growth locally and internationally (The Indian Institute Of Planning And Management 2006). Currently, there are few key players in the industry: Barista, Cafà © Coffee Day, Costa Coffee, Coffee World, Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf (CBTL) and Qwicky. Among them the top two are Barista and Cafà © coffee day who have captured the major share in the market. The country is moving towards a stable and conducive political environment as a reduction is seen in internal turmoil due to political influences and moreover, the political parties have shown positive response towards
Funding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words
Funding - Essay Example lated to different medical conditions including funds for research on patients who require assistance of ventilation that is mechanical in nature, they even funds research that are carried out to help and improve the health and wellbeing of women who are experiencing aging as well as breast cancer, they are offering funds for research regarding deadly diseases such as AIDs, they even fund researches that are related to disease prevention methods that are community based and they even provide funds for research that are related to health and wellbeing of officials of the field of nursing and medicine (Loeb 199). In order to obtain funds and grants from NINR, the project leader for the research should be at least qualified at the doctoral level and these researchers should have at least completed one research in the field or in the disease that they are opting to conduct a larger and expanded research. In order to obtain funds for a particular research the leader has to submit a propos al and then the proposal is reviewed by the panel for acceptance or rejection. Loeb, Susan J., Janice Penrod, Ann Kolanowski, Judith E. Hupcey, Kim Kopenhaver Haidet, Donna M. Fick, Dee Mcgonigle, and Fang Yu. "Creating Cross-Disciplinary Research Alliances to Advance Nursing Science." Journal of Nursing Scholarship 40.2 (2008): 195-201.
Thursday, October 17, 2019
Google is a Successful Organization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Google is a Successful Organization - Essay Example From this paper it is clear that Google is an international worldwide organization that is ranked world’s third biggest and valuable organization. The extraordinary work force with passionate and commitment to work environment, sound management practices and peoples analytics approach are some other determinants of success for Google. Google has incorporated the concept of continuous innovation and considering new talent screening the marketplace to the top. Google has taken a strategic shift to strengthen its workplace by great people management. Innovation is a product of new retainers and new people and Google accepts this fact for success. The managers are enabled to produce advanced business outcomes only when they are managing people decisions, accurately. This study outlines that people analytics approach is applied here. Pursuing long term relationships with the personnel, reward and recognitions, growth and opportunity, securities are yet other determinants o f success. The analytical based models for producing great results, enhancing workforce productivity and growing dramatically is given out by Google that has gained enough recognition and acceptance by the executives of other firms. Google largely depends on data and analytics for driving decisions. Technology is a great breakthrough and coping up with the ultra high tech standards for maintaining and provoking it also call for Google’s success.
English 105 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
English 105 - Essay Example se people require, it would also be great to spread awareness and to let other people know about their plight so that they can come forward and help them, it is an arduous task but someone has to take an initiative and drive other people forward so that they work in unison and improve the overall living conditions in Africa. It is really a surprise to me that the world has made so much progress yet many people continue to live far below the poverty line, this disparity has to be eliminated and it is really important for the other people to understand this and they will also work towards eliminating this disparity once they understand how important it is to restore parity in the society. â€Å"Drought is a recurrent phenomenon in the semiarid regions of Africa. The first showers of the rainy season usually follow a long dry season, during which the soil becomes thoroughly dried out.†(M. Eugene, P. 8) Africa is hit badly by other factors also and even this needs to be sorted out, the climate experts should intervene and suggest solutions to these natural problems that are being faced by several people in Africa. â€Å"Malnutrition is a major health problem, especially in developing countries. Water supply, sanitation and hygiene, given their direct impact on infectious disease, especially diarrhea, are important for preventing malnutrition. Both malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation are linked to poverty. The impact of repeated or persistent diarrhea on nutrition-related poverty and the effect of malnutrition on susceptibility to infectious diarrhea are reinforcing elements of the same vicious circle, especially amongst children in developing countries.†(WHO) Malnutrition remains another huge problem, the final paper will also reveal some very important statistics and it will also aim at providing solutions to these ever growing problems. The most important aim would be to make the people who are living in ideal conditions understand the plight
Wednesday, October 16, 2019
Funding Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words
Funding - Essay Example lated to different medical conditions including funds for research on patients who require assistance of ventilation that is mechanical in nature, they even funds research that are carried out to help and improve the health and wellbeing of women who are experiencing aging as well as breast cancer, they are offering funds for research regarding deadly diseases such as AIDs, they even fund researches that are related to disease prevention methods that are community based and they even provide funds for research that are related to health and wellbeing of officials of the field of nursing and medicine (Loeb 199). In order to obtain funds and grants from NINR, the project leader for the research should be at least qualified at the doctoral level and these researchers should have at least completed one research in the field or in the disease that they are opting to conduct a larger and expanded research. In order to obtain funds for a particular research the leader has to submit a propos al and then the proposal is reviewed by the panel for acceptance or rejection. Loeb, Susan J., Janice Penrod, Ann Kolanowski, Judith E. Hupcey, Kim Kopenhaver Haidet, Donna M. Fick, Dee Mcgonigle, and Fang Yu. "Creating Cross-Disciplinary Research Alliances to Advance Nursing Science." Journal of Nursing Scholarship 40.2 (2008): 195-201.
English 105 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
English 105 - Essay Example se people require, it would also be great to spread awareness and to let other people know about their plight so that they can come forward and help them, it is an arduous task but someone has to take an initiative and drive other people forward so that they work in unison and improve the overall living conditions in Africa. It is really a surprise to me that the world has made so much progress yet many people continue to live far below the poverty line, this disparity has to be eliminated and it is really important for the other people to understand this and they will also work towards eliminating this disparity once they understand how important it is to restore parity in the society. â€Å"Drought is a recurrent phenomenon in the semiarid regions of Africa. The first showers of the rainy season usually follow a long dry season, during which the soil becomes thoroughly dried out.†(M. Eugene, P. 8) Africa is hit badly by other factors also and even this needs to be sorted out, the climate experts should intervene and suggest solutions to these natural problems that are being faced by several people in Africa. â€Å"Malnutrition is a major health problem, especially in developing countries. Water supply, sanitation and hygiene, given their direct impact on infectious disease, especially diarrhea, are important for preventing malnutrition. Both malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation are linked to poverty. The impact of repeated or persistent diarrhea on nutrition-related poverty and the effect of malnutrition on susceptibility to infectious diarrhea are reinforcing elements of the same vicious circle, especially amongst children in developing countries.†(WHO) Malnutrition remains another huge problem, the final paper will also reveal some very important statistics and it will also aim at providing solutions to these ever growing problems. The most important aim would be to make the people who are living in ideal conditions understand the plight
Tuesday, October 15, 2019
Mills Utilitarianism Analysis Essay Example for Free
Mills Utilitarianism Analysis Essay Thesis: Objectors of Utilitarianism states that there is no time for calculating and weighing the effects on utilizing the general happiness. On the contrary, Mill says that mankind has been learning by experience the tendency of actions in order to know what is right and wrong. The rules of morality is improvable, therefore we should pass all that experience on others. However, improving the rules of morality is one thing, but to educate it to the younger is another; since there is still much to learn about the effects of actions on general happiness, and all rational people go through life with their minds made up on the common questions of right and wrong. Reasons: 1. Philosopher and the human: They have to acquire experience about the effects of some actions on their happiness and improving it or at least maintain it. . Traveler: Mill uses the traveler going for his destination as for if a man needs to follow the rules of general happiness, we should open the way and direct him to the knowledge, and not to forbid it. 3. Sailors: They go to sea with it calculated on the Nautical Almanac. Therefore, as for the people, they go on the sea of life with a made up mind on the common questions of right and wrong, and more complicated questions of wise and foolish. Discussion: Mill’s defend against the objectors of Utilitarianism is that the rules of general happiness are made up by the experience of the people. Also, it is improvable by teaching it to the younger and other people. But, he also argues that human are rational creature. Human are capable of answering the questions of right and wrongness by their own experience, and they also capable of learning and experiencing more on their way of life.
Monday, October 14, 2019
A Story Of The Tell Tale Heart
A Story Of The Tell Tale Heart Everybody loves a good story! We have been told stories since a young age; also as we grow up; we continue to be surrounded by them. However, what makes a good and interesting story? For me in order to answer this question, I have chosen three short stories to evaluate them, which are The Tell Tale Heart, The Monkeys Paw and The Landlady. The main ingredients of the three stories mentioned above are the genre, characters and the setting. The genre of the story doesnt have to be very sophisticated, but it should tell us about the aim of the story such as is the story aimed to make us laugh or cry? The Tell Tale Heart: The Tell Tale Heart is a short story is written by Edger Allan Poe in 1843. The interesting part of the story is the guilt of a mad man who hears the heart of the old man he has killed still beating. Although the readers are given a rare insight into the mind of a mad man, but what is specially of interest is that this mad man is in obvious denial of his insanity and he acts like a child who has done something wrong and knows that the readers know it. In fact it is within the first two sentences of the story that the narrator feels he must convince to the readers of his sanity but not madness Very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but what will you say that I am mad. Another interesting point was made by the author the way in which the narrator talks fluctuate rapidly. When the narrator first defends his sanity, he seems calm, relaxed, and even intelligent. Then later like the above passage he seems to be rambling like a crazed lunatic. It is the time when he is calm in his manner of speech, which he is in his deepest state of a denial, to the time where he almost convinced of his sanity. It is interesting to note beside the obvious fact that it is impossible to hear everything in the heaven and earth, the symbolism that can be found in his speech I heard many things in hell. This statement is the narrators subconscious. After the narrator committed the murder of the old man, he started speaking about the precautions he took; precautions that he believed only a sane man could have taken. Where things really get interesting is when the narrator lunges in to kill the old man. He shrieked once-only once. The scream of the old man something that could easily be audible to the neighbours causes the narrator no anxiety. In fact the narrator almost immediately shifts its attention back to the heart. He hears the old mans heart beating furiously, terrified for his life. It is however not the old mans heart which the narrator is hearing but it is his own heart. The author does something very clever in the above part, he further portrays the narrators warped sense of reality by describing the sense of anxiety that the narrator receives from the loudness of the old mans heart, fearing that it will wake the neighbours. The greatest symbolism between a heart, the narrators super hearing and a conscience comes at the end of the story. Where the narrator manages to convince the police officers that there is nothing suspicious at the house but then the heart comes into play once again. Clearly the narrator is not hearing an actual noise, but is suffering from the manifestations of his maddened mind. Villains! I shirked, dissemble no more! I admit the deed!tear up the planks!here, here!it is the beating of his hideous heart. The narrators insanity gives him away to the police, he cant take it any longer and he cries out his guilty confession. Through the guise of the narrators madness, Poe portrays the mans consciousness as the beating of his heart. In essence the narrator is hearing a physical representation of his own guilt. The fascinating, but convoluted, point of view through which the story is portrayed is masterfully done to the point where Poe has his readers picking through the madness to separate what is actually going on, from how the narrator perceives things are going on. Poe uses symbolism and point of view as his greatest assets, and expertly portrays the order to madness. In its genius simplicity, Poe uses the narrators continuous denial to convince the reader of his undoubted insanity. The Monkeys Paw: The Monkeys Paw is a short story is written by W. W. Jacobs. The interesting part of the story begins when tragedy strikes the White Family, when Sergeant Major Morris brings a Monkeys Paw into their lives which is said to grant three wishes. This story had three main parts. These parts were the first wish, the first wish granted and the second and the third wishes. The way author has used day, night and the weather at the beginning of the story immediately captures the readers interest by explain that it is a bad day with nothing to look forward, when he says the night was cold and wet in the small parlour of laburnum villaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. The majority of the storys scenes happen at night, leaving only a few scenes in daylight. During the night, the weather is never pleasant and often unsettling, but during the day the weather is decent. The author purposely sets the suspenseful scenes during the nighttime leaving the reader to expect something horrible to happen. The scenes that take place during the day are not as scary and do not have the same effect as those at night. The authors main reason for setting these scenes at night is to target the readers fears. For example, the scene where Mr. White wishes for his son to come back to life is set at night to make it fearful and suspenseful. When their wish came true, it was a stormy night. There was heavy rain, thunder and lightning. If it had been set in the daylight it would not have had the same effect. The setting had been in the middle of nowhere it provides a feeling of isolation from civilization, and also when it at night it establishes the expectation that something could go wrong and therefore helps to build suspense. This makes the story better and interesting. Jacobs has made this story interesting because the reader attention got drawn into by listening to Sergeant Major Morris travels in India and the mysterious tale of The Monkeys Paw Well, its just a bit of what you might call magic, perhaps as the Sergeant Major said. Jacobs makes the tale even more intriguing by the way the Sergeant Major tells the tale about The Monkeys Paw but then goes on to being reserved about it. Another interesting part is that all the previous owners of The Monkeys Paw remain unknown, and the only thing that is revealed is that something horrible happened to them. The Sergeant Major only mentioned about one of them, as he talked about his wishes I dont know what the first two were, but the third was for death. The three wishes are also spaced just right, so that the events in the story can take place the way they do. The first wishs horrible results are enough to create more tension in the plot, but leave enough wishes for there to be hope of fixing it. The second wish serves to complicate the plot further, yet leaves the third wish as an option to fix it. The author adds depth and more excitement to the story by injecting suspense and mystery at almost every turn. From the beginning, he uses somewhat vague dialogue and intriguing character reactions to create tension. For example when Mr. White questioned the Sergeant Major about The Monkeys Paw, he replied Leastways, nothing worth hearing. This shows the Sergeant Major Morris discomfort while speaking of The Monkeys Paw draws the reader in and keeps them hooked. The audience can understand the uncomfortable history surrounding the strange talisman. This tension exponentially has increased when Morris suddenly threw The Monkeys Paw at the fire and he said Better let it burn. At this moment, the military mans true fear and hatred of The Monkeys Paw reveal themselves. The entire climax of the story also radiates pulse pounding suspense. The author controls the readers perspective and interest through the story by other methods as well. The previous owners of The Monkeys Paw are a great example of irony. Something bad happened to them, when the Sergeant Major reveals. This creates a fearful image to the readers mind and the reader is looking for something similar to happen to the Whites family. Even though the Whites expected their magical money to come falling from the sky, when Herbert said Might drop on his head from the sky. At second and third parts of the story the readers attention focuses on Mr. and Mrs. White, and not the events that take place outside their house. The reader never really sees how the wish on the paw caused their sons fatal accident, or whether or not he was brought back to life. It could all be a coincidence but because of the perspective the reader is forced to take, the story seems more sinister and powerful than it might have otherwise. This effect is used to its fullest extent when the lost son is apparently brought back to life. The knocking on the door was believed to be him, even though Mr. White didnt believe to be him, as he said to his wife For Gods sake, dont let it in, but the last wish was made before the door was opened. Its possible that he was never there at all, despite what the characters in the story believe. The author never really reveal what was the last wish but one can assume that he wished he had never made his second wish. The end of the story is open and leaves us to come up with an end of our own. Conclusion: the author has managed to use a good connection between each part of the story, which captures the readers interesting by explaining how the Whites in the beginning of the story are content, yet skeptical of the magical properties of The Monkeys Paw. Through the events of the story, their world has turned upside down, and in the end they are wrestling on the floor for control of the same Monkeys Paw. Their previous happiness is converted to despair and sorrow in just ten days. The Landlady: The Landlady is a short story which has an unexpected ending by Roald Dahl. The writer uses clever structure and effective characterization to create such a surprising and satisfactory ending. I think the author has set the time and weather in condition, which creates an atmosphere of suspense and a sinister in the story. Billy arrived in Bath at 9pm and it is a time when darkness takes over light, as dark represents evil. The moon was coming up out of a clear starry sky. This quote is associated with strong things happening creating evil as the atmosphere changes and it shows the start of a supernatural suspense. The air was deadly cold and the wind was like flat blades of ice on his cheeks. Roald Dahls word choice is excellent and chillingly describes the opening scene. By the use of words, such as: cold, deadly and blade the author gives us clues, hinting at Billys, the main character and his fate. The weather was not pleasant because the wind was sharp and deadly cold. Flat blade is associated with knife which is related to evil because it causes people to bleed when cut. Billy is seventeen; this is another good reason, which is given by the writer in the story. Why? Because it is evident from the story that Billy is mature since he is making his own sensible decisions and is starting a good job but in reality he is young and vulnerable boy. He is also sociable, handsome and generally a likable person. There are several suggestions in the paragraph to back this up. He enjoys darts, likes going out. The writer introduces him the perfect teenage boy to readers. The problem is he catches the eye of the landlady, an original and unusual character to commit murder. Roald Dahl uses the setting to the condition that without it the story wouldnt work. If it was set in the modern day we would have the problem of communication via internet or mobile phones. In the modern day Billys mum or the people receiving him in his new job would have phoned the next day when they didnt hear from him but at the time when the story is set there was a lot less communication between people and it is likely that he would not have been missed for a long while after his disappearance. Instead he is stuck, unknowingly, at a strange BED AND BREAKFAST with a psychopathic old lady but no form of communication with the outside world. That is what makes it interesting. Therefore Billys mood is unpleasant in Bath because He didnt know anyone who lived here. This shows that Billy is a lonely person in the strong city called Bath so he would have nobody to turn to for help or assistance, therefore he is not happy. Roald Dahl manages to keep us interested the whole way through. By starting with the ice-cold weather and going on to talk about the perfect, good looking teenage boy. He draws us in with enticing clues put in here and there throughout the story like little hints of horror or spookiness. Billy comes across a swanky residence with porches and pillars but the white facades were all blotchy and cracked. A slight twist, not everything is as it seems in the fancy place and all of a sudden he comes across an illuminated sign. When he looks closer in the window he sees cosy furnishings and a beautifully designed, welcoming, window. And now a queer thing happened to him, this is where the story takes and important turn when the strange and supernatural that has been building up declares itself out in the open. We think that whatever happens now cant be right. The sign BED AND BREAKFAST, BED AND BREAKFAST, BED AND BREAKFAST stops him from going away, holding him, compelling him, forcing him to stay where he was. Before he knew what was happening he had rung the bell and then at once the door was opened and he was being welcomed, almost simultaneously into a warm and comfortable house by an elderly woman, unsuspecting. In the story she is described as looking like your best friends mother. Roald Dahl also says, with good use of parenthesis, She was not only harmless there was no question about that but she was obviously a kind and generous soul. Billy obviously has complete trust in the landlady and it is clear that he doesnt expect that she is going to turn out to be mentally deranged. Gradually we get tantalizing hints as to how Billy is undoubtedly going to die (even though it is never actually said). The landlady looks Billy up and down as if she fancies him but when we look at other clues the cheap accommodation, she doesnt want to break any laws at this stage in the proceedings it seems to be something else and we want to know what. At last we see the picture coming together from all the clues we have pieced together. Billy is sure when he reads the guest book that hes heard the names before somewhere and when he thinks he is positive that they were linked in some way. When he mentions this to the landlady she changes the subject and seems unnaturally anxious to persuade him to drink his tea. Billy looks at the names and notices that the dates are over a year apart and the latest two years ago! This is very suspicious and warrants closer inspection. He asks the landlady herself about this but she says she is very choosy. What gives her plan away to the reader is when she tells Billy that they are still in the house both together. When she says, about Mr Mulholland, and there wasnt a blemish on his body, even Billy is surprised. We are finally relieved of the burden of guesswork when she tells us that both of her extremely lifelike pets are stuffed. We know that the landlady has probably been preparing to stuff Billy because of all the clues we have had and she smells funny, a mix between old leather (preserved or dried skin) and vinegar(used to preserve food by pickling), the tea tastes like almonds, a type of poison. We know whats going to happen to him and it seems as though the landlady has been waiting for the chance for some time because the bed covers were tucked back for him and a warm hot water bottle had been laid inside the bed before he arrived even though she had had no guests for two years. Roald Dahl never has to say any of this but we understand it all by the end anyway, this is what makes the story so interesting.
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